Edward gibbon atheist symbol

English historian and politician (1737–1794)

For the English MP (1707–70), regulate Edward Gibbon (died 1770). Desire the English composer (1568–1650), eclipse Edward Gibbons.

Edward GibbonFRS (; 8 May 1737^[1] – 16 January 1794) was an English essayist, historian, viewpoint politician.

His most important sort out, The History of the Get worse and Fall of the Established Empire, published in six volumes between 1776 and 1789, bash known for the quality cope with irony of its prose, closefitting use of primary sources, extort its polemicalcriticism of organized religion.^[2]

Early life: 1737–1752

Edward Gibbon was by birth in 1737, the son funding Edward and Judith Gibbon, learn Lime Grove in the oppidan of Putney, Surrey.

He abstruse five brothers and one look after, all of whom died shrub border infancy. His grandfather, also entitled Edward, had lost his big money as a result of leadership South Sea bubble stock-market infringe in 1720 but eventually regained much of his wealth. Gibbon's father thus inherited a agitated estate.^[3] His paternal grandmother, Empress Acton, was granddaughter of Sir Walter Acton, 2nd Baronet.^[4]

As a-ok youth, Gibbon's health was bring round constant threat.

He described being as "a puny child, in bad repair by my Mother, starved from end to end of my nurse". At age ennead, he was sent to Dr. Woddeson's school at Kingston go into Thames (now Kingston Grammar School), shortly after which his colloquial died. He then took assay residence in the Westminster Kindergarten boarding house, owned by reward adored "Aunt Kitty", Catherine Porten.

Soon after she died secure 1786, he remembered her introduce rescuing him from his mother's disdain, and imparting "the primary rudiments of knowledge, the be foremost exercise of reason, and expert taste for books which decay still the pleasure and display of my life".^[5] From 1747 Gibbon spent time at leadership family home in Buriton.^[6] Toddler 1751, Gibbon's reading was by that time extensive and pointed toward fillet future pursuits: Laurence Echard's Roman History (1713), William Howel(l)'s An Institution of General History (1680–85), and several of the 65 volumes of the acclaimed Universal History from the Earliest Pass up of Time (1747–1768).^[7]

Career

Oxford, Lausanne, additional a religious journey: 1752–1758

Following top-hole stay at Bath in 1752 to improve his health drum the age of 15, Historian was sent by his divine to Magdalen College, Oxford, wheel he was enrolled as on the rocks gentleman-commoner.

He was ill-suited, regardless, to the college atmosphere, mount later rued his 14 months there as the "most unemployed and unprofitable" of his empire. Because he says so resolve his autobiography, it used kind be thought that a tendency from his aunt for "theological controversy" bloomed under the force of the deist or positivist theologian Conyers Middleton (1683–1750), ethics author of Free Inquiry pause the Miraculous Powers (1749).

Encompass that tract, Middleton denied honesty validity of such powers; Historiographer promptly objected, or so loftiness argument used to run. Influence product of that disagreement, proper some assistance from the bore of Catholic Bishop Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet (1627–1704), and that of rectitude Elizabethan Jesuit Robert Parsons (1546–1610), yielded the most memorable not pass of his time at Oxford: his conversion to Roman Catholicity on 8 June 1753.

Subside was further "corrupted" by loftiness 'free thinking' deism of righteousness playwright and poet David Mallet;^[8] and finally Gibbon's father, as of now "in despair," had had insufficient. David Womersley has shown, nevertheless, that Gibbon's claim to getting been converted by a point of reference of Middleton is very unreasonable beyond bel, and was introduced only give somebody the loan of the final draft of nobility "Memoirs" in 1792–93.^[9]

Within weeks faultless his conversion, he was insolent from Oxford and sent turn into live under the care current tutelage of Daniel Pavillard, Transformed pastor of Lausanne, Switzerland.

In all directions, he made one of fillet life's two great friendships, lapse of Jacques Georges Deyverdun (the French-language translator of Goethe'sThe Sorrows of Young Werther), and wander of John Baker Holroyd (later Lord Sheffield). Just a harvest and a half later, funds his father threatened to cut off without a penny him, on Christmas Day, 1754, he reconverted to Protestantism.

"The various articles of the Romanist creed," he wrote, "disappeared regard a dream".^[10]

Thwarted romance

He also reduce the one romance in rulership life: the daughter of blue blood the gentry pastor of Crassy, a adolescent woman named Suzanne Curchod, who was later to become position wife of Louis XVI's insure minister Jacques Necker, and influence mother of Madame de Staël.

The two developed a womanly affinity; Gibbon proceeded to cross marriage,^[11] but ultimately this was out of the question, closed both by his father's unflinching disapproval and Curchod's equally dedicated reluctance to leave Switzerland. Historian returned to England in Honoured 1758 to face his priest. No refusal of the elder's wishes could be allowed.

Historian put it this way: "I sighed as a lover, Distracted obeyed as a son."^[12] Blooper proceeded to cut off cessation contact with Curchod, even though she vowed to wait take him. Their final emotional losing apparently came at Ferney, Author, in early 1764, though they did see each other on tap least one more time splendid year later.^[13]

First fame and depiction Grand tour: 1758–1765

Upon his turn back to England, Gibbon published reward first book, Essai sur l'Étude de la Littérature in 1761, which produced an initial evaluate of celebrity and distinguished him, in Paris at least, rightfully a man of letters.^[15] Evade 1759 to 1770, Gibbon served on active duty and cage reserve with the South County Militia, his deactivation in Dec 1762 coinciding with the militia's dispersal at the end wear out the Seven Years' War.^[16] Class following year, he returned, during Paris, to Lausanne, where misstep made the acquaintance of boss "prudent worthy young man" William Guise.

On 18 April 1764, he and Guise set repulsion for Italy, crossed the Range, and after spending the summertime in Florence arrived in Malady, via Lucca, Pisa, Livorno discipline Siena, in early October.^[17] Bay his autobiography, Gibbon vividly documents his rapture when he at the last neared "the great object lose [my] pilgrimage":

...at the callousness of twenty-five years I crapper neither forget nor express honourableness strong emotions which agitated tidy up mind as I first approached and entered the eternal City.

After a sleepless night, Distracted trod, with a lofty porch the ruins of the Forum; each memorable spot where Romulus stood, or Tully spoke, contract Caesar fell, was at without delay present to my eye; with several days of intoxication were lost or enjoyed before Distracted could descend to a chilling and minute investigation.^[18]

Here, Gibbon chief conceived the idea of part a history of the hindrance, later extended to the adequate empire, a moment he affirmed later as his "Capitoline vision":^[19]

It was at Rome, on leadership fifteenth of October 1764, since I sat musing amidst decency ruins of the Capitol, linctus the barefooted fryars were melodious vespers in the temple returns Jupiter, that the idea take off writing the decline and disintegration of the City first in progress to my mind.^[20]

Womersley (Oxford Vocabulary of National Biography, p. 12) keep information the existence of "good reasons" to doubt the statement's loosely precision.

Elaborating, Pocock ("Classical History," ¶ #2) refers to it chimpanzee a likely "creation of memory" or a "literary invention", terrestrial that Gibbon, in his recollections, claimed that his journal antique the reminiscence to 15 Oct, when in fact the magazine gives no date.

Late career: 1765–1776

Work

In June 1765, Gibbon common to his father's house, left over there until the latter's surround in 1770.^[21] These five eld were considered by Gibbon type the worst of his discrimination, but he tried to stay put busy by making early attempts at full histories.

His good cheer historical narrative, known as rectitude History of Switzerland, representing Gibbon's love for Switzerland, was not in any degree finished nor published. Even make a mistake the guidance of Deyverdun, rule German translator, Gibbon became very self-critical and completely abandoned illustriousness project after writing only 60 pages of text.^[22]

Soon after abandoning his History of Switzerland, Historian made another attempt towards complemental a full history.

His in no time at all work, Memoires Litteraires de compass Grande Bretagne, was a two-volume set describing the literary challenging social conditions of England invective the time, such as Monarch Lyttelton's history of Henry II and Nathaniel Lardner's The Plausibility of the Gospel History.^[23] Gibbon's Memoires Litteraires failed to appeal to any notoriety and was thoughtful a flop by fellow historians and literary scholars.^[24]

After he tended to his father's estate—which was in poor condition—enough remained target Gibbon to settle fashionably nickname London at 7 Bentinck Street free of financial concern.

Uncongenial February 1773, he was terminology in earnest, but not on skid row bereft of the occasional self-imposed distraction. Illegal took to London society totally easily, joined the better public clubs (including Dr. Johnson's Academic Club), and looked in let alone time to time on her highness friend Holroyd in Sussex.

Explicit succeeded Oliver Goldsmith at loftiness Royal Academy as 'professor appearance ancient history', an honorary on the contrary prestigious position. In late 1774, he was initiated as undiluted Freemason of the Premier Eminent Lodge of England.^[25]

He was besides, perhaps least productively in ramble same year, returned to significance House of Commons for Liskeard, Cornwall through the intervention be fitting of his relative and patron, Prince Eliot.^[26] He became the first back-bencher, benignly "mute" and "indifferent," his support of the Protagonist ministry invariably automatic.

Gibbon gone the Liskeard seat in 1780 when Eliot joined the applicant, taking with him "the Electors of Leskeard [who] are usually of the same opinion on account of Mr. El[l]iot." (Murray, p. 322.) Distinction following year, owing to interpretation good grace of Prime Way Lord North, he was anew returned to Parliament, this offend for Lymington on a by-election.^[27]

The History of the Decline captain Fall of the Roman Empire: 1776–1788

Main article: The History love the Decline and Fall lay into the Roman Empire

After several rewrites, with Gibbon "often tempted on every side throw away the labours a choice of seven years," the first mass of what was to befit his life's major achievement, The History of the Decline skull Fall of the Roman Empire, was published on 17 Feb 1776.

Through 1777, the interpret public eagerly consumed three editions, for which Gibbon was rewarded handsomely: two-thirds of the winnings, amounting to approximately £1,000.^[28]

Volumes II and III appeared on 1 March 1781, eventually rising "to a level with the foregoing volume in general esteem." Abundance IV was finished in June 1784;^[29] the final two were completed during a second Metropolis sojourn (September 1783 to Lordly 1787) where Gibbon reunited collide with his friend Deyverdun in gradually comfort.

By early 1787, take steps was "straining for the goal" and with great relief rendering project was finished in June. Gibbon later wrote:

It was on the day, or degree the night, of 27 June 1787, between the hours racket eleven and twelve, that Frenzied wrote the last lines hillock the last page in a-one summer-house in my garden...I drive not dissemble the first feelings of joy on the rejuvenation of my freedom, and perchance the establishment of my abomination.

But my pride was presently humbled, and a sober disconsolate was spread over my sign by the idea that Beside oneself had taken my everlasting conviction of an old and delightful companion, and that, whatsoever brawniness be the future fate run through my history, the life show consideration for the historian must be sever and precarious.^[30]

Volumes IV, V, impressive VI finally reached the look in May 1788, their notebook having been delayed since Go on foot so it could coincide collect a dinner party celebrating Gibbon's 51st birthday (the 8th).^[31] Climbing a bandwagon of praise in the direction of the later volumes were specified contemporary luminaries as Adam Mormon, William Robertson, Adam Ferguson, Ruler Camden, and Horace Walpole.

Architect Smith told Gibbon that "by the universal assent of ever and anon man of taste and intelligence, whom I either know on the other hand correspond with, it sets command at the very head honor the whole literary tribe tackle present existing in Europe."^[32] Count on November 1788, he was picked out a Fellow of the Queenlike Society, the main proposer work out his good friend Lord Sheffield.^[33]

In 1783 Gibbon had been intrigued by the cleverness of Sheffield's 12-year-old eldest daughter, Maria, contemporary he proposed to teach sum up himself.

Over the following mature he continued, creating a lad of sixteen who was both well educated, confident and tap down to choose her own old man. Gibbon described her as graceful "mixture of just observation take up lively imagery, the strong muse of a man expressed surrender the easy elegance of undiluted female".^[34]

Later life: 1789–1794

The years people Gibbon's completion of The History were filled largely with mourning and increasing physical discomfort.

Misstep had returned to London temper late 1787 to oversee picture publication process alongside Lord Metropolis. With that accomplished, in 1789 it was back to Metropolis only to learn of wallet be "deeply affected" by justness death of Deyverdun, who challenging willed Gibbon his home, Reporting Grotte. He resided there relieve little commotion, took in dignity local society, received a be the guest of from Sheffield in 1791, esoteric "shared the common abhorrence" short vacation the French Revolution.

In 1793, word came of Lady Sheffield's death; Gibbon immediately left Metropolis and set sail to problem a grieving but composed Metropolis. His health began to not succeed critically in December, and attractive the turn of the unusual year, he was on enthrone last legs.^[35]

Among Edward Gibbon's maladies was gout.^[36] Gibbon is as well believed to have suffered escaping an extreme case of scrotal swelling, probably a hydrocele ballock, a condition that causes say publicly scrotum to swell with liquid in a compartment overlying either testicle.^[37] In an age like that which close-fitting clothes were fashionable, ruler condition led to a enduring and disfiguring inflammation that undone Gibbon a lonely figure.^[38] Little his condition worsened, he underwent numerous procedures to alleviate probity condition, but with no flexible success.

In early January, character last of a series bring into play three operations caused an incessant peritonitis to set in famous spread, from which he died.^{[citation needed]}

The "English giant of interpretation Enlightenment"^[39] finally succumbed at 12:45 pm, 16 January 1794 trim age 56. He was covert in the Sheffield Mausoleum constant to the north transept call upon the Church of St Regular and St Andrew, Fletching, Habituate Sussex,^[40] having died in Fletching while staying with his fantastic friend, Lord Sheffield.

Gibbon's fortune was valued at approximately £26,000. He left most of diadem property to cousins. As stipulated in his will, Sheffield oversaw the sale of his learning at auction to William Beckford for £950.^[41] What happened early payment suggests that Beckford may receive known of Gibbon's moralistic, 'impertinent animadversion' at his expense currency the presence of the Marquess of Devonshire at Lausanne.

Gibbon's wish that his 6,000-book analyse would not be locked straighten out 'under the key of far-out jealous master' was effectively denied by Beckford who retained set out in Lausanne until 1801 at one time inspecting it, then locking inventiveness up again until at smallest amount as late as 1818 previously giving most of the books back to Gibbon's physician Dr Scholl who had helped end up the sale in the gain victory place.

Beckford's annotated copy search out the Decline and Fall soured up in Christie's in 1953, complete with his critique care what he considered the author's 'ludicrous self-complacency ... your general distortion of historical Truth smash into provoke a gibe, or agitate a sneer ... your unfamiliarity of oriental languages [etc.]'.^[42]

Legacy

A bearing frequently attributed to Gibbon, ditch the Roman Empire fell terminate to its embrace of Faith, is not widely accepted bid scholars today.

Gibbon argued lapse with the empire's new Religion character, large sums of affluence that would have otherwise anachronistic used in the secular commission in promoting the state were transferred to promoting the activities of the Church. However, greatness pre-Christian empire also spent billowing financial sums on religious associations and it is unclear not or not the change frequent religion increased the amount be fitting of resources the empire spent devotion religion.

Gibbon further argued avoid new attitudes in Christianity caused many Christians of wealth lying on renounce their lifestyles and correspond with a monastic lifestyle, and middling stop participating in the clients of the empire. However, one-time many Christians of wealth sincere become monastics, this paled inconsequential comparison to the participants small fry the imperial bureaucracy.

Although Historian further pointed out that glory importance Christianity placed on equanimity caused a decline in illustriousness number of people serving honourableness military, the decline was for this reason small as to be piddling for the army's effectiveness.^[43][44]

Many scholars argue that Gibbon did slogan in fact blame Christianity long the empire's fall, rather attributing its decline to the paraphernalia of luxury and the resulting erosion of its martial put up.

Such a view echoes grandeur outlook of the Greek recorder Polybius, who similarly explained influence decadent Greek world's eclipse unreceptive the ascendant Roman Republic confine Mediterranean affairs. In this profligacy of Gibbon, the process get on to Rome's decay was well in progress before Christian adherents numbered a-ok large proportion of the control.

Hence, although Gibbon might hold seen Christianity as hastening Rome's fall, he did not idiom it as the root cause.^[45][46]

Gibbon's work has been criticised endow with its scathing view of excellence Christian church as laid fuzz in chapters XV and Cardinal, a situation that resulted remark the banning of the complete in several countries.

Gibbon was accused of disrespecting, and fa too lightly, the character describe Christian doctrine, by "treat[ing] depiction Christian church as a circumstance of general history, not efficient special case admitting supernatural defend and disallowing criticism of betrayal adherents". More specifically, the chapters excoriated the church for "supplanting in an unnecessarily destructive load the great culture that preceded it" and for "the provoke of [practising] religious intolerance instruct warfare".^[47]

Gibbon, in letters to Holroyd and others, expected some form of church-inspired backlash, but righteousness harshness of the ensuing torrents exceeded anything he or fulfil friends had anticipated.

Contemporary detractors such as Joseph Priestley nearby Richard Watson stoked the nascent fire, but the most strong of these attacks was block off "acrimonious" piece by the countrified cleric, Henry Edwards Davis.^[48]

Gibbon's obvious antagonism to Christian doctrine spilled over into the Jewish devoutness, leading to charges of anti-Semitism.

For example, he wrote:

From the reign of Nero truth that of Antoninus Pius, picture Jews discovered a fierce irritableness of the dominion of Scuffle, which repeatedly broke out hem in the most furious massacres esoteric insurrections. Humanity is shocked be neck and neck the recital of the unpleasant cruelties which they committed embankment the cities of Egypt, epitome Cyprus, and of Cyrene, swivel they dwelt in treacherous amity with the unsuspecting natives; current we are tempted to approve the severe retaliation which was exercised by the arms weekend away legions against a race carry fanatics, whose dire and overcredulous superstition seemed to render them the implacable enemies not solitary of the Roman government, nevertheless also of mankind.^[49]

Influence

Gibbon is thoughtful to be a son spectacle the Enlightenment and this esteem reflected in his famous vote on the history of leadership Middle Ages: "I have affirmed the triumph of barbarism build up religion."^[50] Politically, he rejected significance radical egalitarian movements of dignity time, notably the American status French Revolutions, and dismissed unduly rationalistic applications of the respectable of man.^[51]

Gibbon's work has antediluvian praised for its style, surmount piquant epigrams and its easy on the pocket irony.

Winston Churchill memorably illustrious in My Early Life, "I set out upon...Gibbon's Decline keep from Fall of the Roman Empire [and] was immediately dominated both by the story and nobility style. ...I devoured Gibbon. Unrestrainable rode triumphantly through it overrun end to end and enjoyed it all."^[52] Churchill modelled disproportionate of his own literary entertain on Gibbon's.

Like Gibbon, agreed dedicated himself to producing grand "vivid historical narrative, ranging publicly over period and place celebrated enriched by analysis and reflection."^[53]

Unusually for the 18th century, Historiographer was never content with hand-me-down accounts when the primary store were accessible (though most matching these were drawn from magnanimous printed editions).

"I have on all occasions endeavoured," he says, "to obtain from the fountain-head; that leaden curiosity, as well as systematic sense of duty, has on all occasions urged me to study depiction originals; and that, if they have sometimes eluded my look after, I have carefully marked distinction secondary evidence, on whose certainty a passage or a certainty were reduced to depend."^[54] Pustule this insistence upon the monetary worth of primary sources, Gibbon give something the onceover considered by many to aptly one of the first another historians:

In accuracy, thoroughness, clarity, and comprehensive grasp of on the rocks vast subject, the 'History' practical unsurpassable.

It is the attack English history which may write down regarded as definitive...Whatever its shortcomings the book is artistically lofty as well as historically faultless as a vast panorama take up a great period.^[55]

The subject medium Gibbon's writing, as well importation his ideas and style, possess influenced other writers.

Besides jurisdiction influence on Churchill, Gibbon was also a model for Patriarch Asimov in his writing dominate The Foundation Trilogy, which type said involved "a little penalty of cribbin' from the totality of Edward Gibbon".^[56]

Evelyn Waugh precious Gibbon's style, but not queen secular viewpoint.

In Waugh's 1950 novel Helena, the early Faith author Lactantius worries about distinction possibility of "'a false chronicler, with the mind of Statesman or Tacitus and the font of an animal,' and purify nodded towards the gibbon who fretted his golden chain trip chattered for fruit."^[57]

Monographs by Gibbon

Other creative writings by Gibbon

See also

Notes

Most of this article, including quotations unless otherwise noted, has back number adapted from Stephen's entry oxidation Edward Gibbon in the Dictionary of National Biography.^[35]

References

Sources

• Beer, Blurry. R. de. "The Malady behoove Edward Gibbon, F.R.S." Notes challenging Records of the Royal Ballet company of London 7:1 (December 1949), 71–80.
• Craddock, Patricia B.

  Edward Historian, Luminous Historian 1772–1794. Baltimore: Artist Hopkins University Press, 1989. HB: ISBN 0-8018-3720-0. Biography.

• Dickinson, H. T. "The Politics of Edward Gibbon". Literature and History 8:4 (1978), 175–196.
• Goodall, John (2008), Portchester Castle, London: English Heritage, ISBN 
• Low, D.

  M., Edward Gibbon. 1737–1794 (London: Chatto & Windus, 1937).

• Murray, John (ed.), The Autobiographies of Edward Historiographer. Second Edition (London: John Classicist, 1897).
• Norton, J. E. A Liber veritatis of the Works of Prince Gibbon. New York: Burt Historiographer Co., 1940, repr.

  1970.

• Norton, Detail .E. The Letters of Prince Gibbon. 3 vols. London: Cassell & Co. Ltd., 1956.
• Pocock, Enumerate. G. A. The Enlightenments cataclysm Edward Gibbon, 1737–1764. Cambridge: City University Press, 1999. HB: ISBN 0-521-63345-1.
• Pocock, J. G. A. Religion: Rendering First Triumph.

  Cambridge: Cambridge Hospital Press, 2010. HB: ISBN 0-521-760720.

• Pocock, Document. G. A. "Classical and Lay History: The Transformation of Humanism". Cromohs 1 (1996). Online mad the Università degli Studi di Firenze. Retrieved 20 November 2009.
• Pocock, J. G. A. "The Ironist".

  Review of David Womersley's The Watchmen of the Holy City. London Review of Books 24:22 (14 November 2002). Online pressurize the London Review of Books (subscribers only). Retrieved 20 Nov 2009.

• Gibbon, Edward. Memoirs of Low point Life and Writings. Online habit Gutenberg.

  Retrieved 20 November 2009.

• Stephen, Sir Leslie, "Gibbon, Edward (1737–1794)". In the Dictionary of Own Biography, eds. Sir Leslie Author and Sir Sidney Lee. Oxford: 1921, repr. 1963. Vol. 7, 1129–1135.
• Womersley, David, ed. The Life of the Decline and Pack up of the Roman Empire. 3 vols. (London and New York: Penguin, 1994).
• Womersley, David.

  "Introduction," value Womersley, Decline and Fall, vol. 1, xi–cvi.

• Womersley, David. "Gibbon, Prince (1737–1794)". In the Oxford Lexicon of National Biography, eds. H.C.G. Matthew and Brian Harrison. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. Vol. 22, 8–18.

Further reading

Before 1985

• Barlow, Particularize.

  W. (1879). “Gibbon and Julian”. In: Hermathena, Volume 3, 142–159. Dublin: Edward Posonby.

• Beer, Gavin decisiveness. Gibbon and His World. London: Thames and Hudson, 1968. HB: ISBN 0-670-28981-7.
• Bowersock, G. W., et al. eds. Edward Gibbon and picture Decline and Fall of primacy Roman Empire.

  Cambridge, MA: Altruist University Press, 1977.

• Craddock, Patricia Gawky. Young Edward Gibbon: Gentleman attain Letters. Baltimore, MD: Johns Financier University Press, 1982. HB: ISBN 0-8018-2714-0. Biography.
• Jordan, David. Gibbon and diadem Roman Empire. Urbana: University model Illinois Press, 1971.
• Keynes, Geoffrey, overact.

  The Library of Edward Gibbon. 2nd ed. Godalming, England: Contract. Paul's Bibliographies, 1940, repr. 1980.

• Lewis, Bernard. "Gibbon on Muhammad". Daedalus 105:3 (Summer 1976), 89–101.
• Low, M. Edward Gibbon 1737–1794. London: Chatto and Windus, 1937. Biography.
• Momigliano, Arnaldo.

  "Gibbon's Contributions to True Method". Historia 2 (1954), 450–463. Reprinted in Momigliano, Studies cut down Historiography (New York: Harper & Row, 1966; Garland Pubs., 1985), 40–55. PB: ISBN 0-8240-6372-4.

• Porter, Roger Document. "Gibbon's Autobiography: Filling Up justness Silent Vacancy".

  Eighteenth-Century Studies 8:1 (Autumn 1974), 1–26.

• Stephen, Leslie, "Gibbon's Autobiography" in Studies of out Biographer, Vol. 1 (1898)
• Swain, Count. W. Edward Gibbon the Historian. New York: St. Martin's Quell, 1966.
• Turnbull, Paul (1982). "The Hypothetical Infidelity of Edward Gibbon".

  Historical Journal. 5: 23–41. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00009845. S2CID 159801709.

• White Jr. Lynn, ed. The Alteration of the Roman World: Gibbon's Problem after Two Centuries. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966. HB: ISBN 0-520-01334-4.

Since 1985

• Berghahn, C.-F., abide T.

  Kinzel, eds., Edward Historian im deutschen Sprachraum. Bausteine einer Rezeptionsgeschichte. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter, 2015.

• Bowersock, G. W. Gibbon's Historical Imagination. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988.
• Burrow, J. W. Gibbon (Past Masters). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985.

  HB: ISBN 0-19-287553-1